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namespaces(7)
NAMESPACES(7) Linux Programmer's Manual NAMESPACES(7)
NAME
namespaces - overview of Linux namespaces
DESCRIPTION
A namespace wraps a global system resource in an abstraction that makes
it appear to the processes within the namespace that they have their
own isolated instance of the global resource. Changes to the global
resource are visible to other processes that are members of the names‐
pace, but are invisible to other processes. One use of namespaces is
to implement containers.
Linux provides the following namespaces:
lB lB lB l lB l. Namespace Constant Isolates Cgroup CLONE_NEWC‐
GROUP Cgroup root directory IPC CLONE_NEWIPC System V IPC, POSIX
message queues Network CLONE_NEWNET Network devices, stacks, ports,
etc. Mount CLONE_NEWNS Mount points PID CLONE_NEWPID Process
IDs User CLONE_NEWUSER User and group IDs UTS CLONE_NEWUTS Hostname
and NIS domain name
This page describes the various namespaces and the associated /proc
files, and summarizes the APIs for working with namespaces.
The namespaces API
As well as various /proc files described below, the namespaces API
includes the following system calls:
clone(2)
The clone(2) system call creates a new process. If the flags
argument of the call specifies one or more of the CLONE_NEW*
flags listed below, then new namespaces are created for each
flag, and the child process is made a member of those names‐
paces. (This system call also implements a number of features
unrelated to namespaces.)
setns(2)
The setns(2) system call allows the calling process to join an
existing namespace. The namespace to join is specified via a
file descriptor that refers to one of the /proc/[pid]/ns files
described below.
unshare(2)
The unshare(2) system call moves the calling process to a new
namespace. If the flags argument of the call specifies one or
more of the CLONE_NEW* flags listed below, then new namespaces
are created for each flag, and the calling process is made a
member of those namespaces. (This system call also implements a
number of features unrelated to namespaces.)
ioctl(2)
Various ioctl(2) operations can be used to discover information
about namespaces. These operations are described in
ioctl_ns(2).
Creation of new namespaces using clone(2) and unshare(2) in most cases
requires the CAP_SYS_ADMIN capability, since, in the new namespace, the
creator will have the power to change global resources that are visible
to other processes that are subsequently created in, or join the names‐
pace. User namespaces are the exception: since Linux 3.8, no privilege
is required to create a user namespace.
The /proc/[pid]/ns/ directory
Each process has a /proc/[pid]/ns/ subdirectory containing one entry
for each namespace that supports being manipulated by setns(2):
$ ls -l /proc/$$/ns
total 0
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 mtk mtk 0 Apr 28 12:46 cgroup -> cgroup:[4026531835]
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 mtk mtk 0 Apr 28 12:46 ipc -> ipc:[4026531839]
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 mtk mtk 0 Apr 28 12:46 mnt -> mnt:[4026531840]
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 mtk mtk 0 Apr 28 12:46 net -> net:[4026531969]
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 mtk mtk 0 Apr 28 12:46 pid -> pid:[4026531836]
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 mtk mtk 0 Apr 28 12:46 pid_for_children -> pid:[4026531834]
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 mtk mtk 0 Apr 28 12:46 user -> user:[4026531837]
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 mtk mtk 0 Apr 28 12:46 uts -> uts:[4026531838]
Bind mounting (see mount(2)) one of the files in this directory to
somewhere else in the filesystem keeps the corresponding namespace of
the process specified by pid alive even if all processes currently in
the namespace terminate.
Opening one of the files in this directory (or a file that is bind
mounted to one of these files) returns a file handle for the corre‐
sponding namespace of the process specified by pid. As long as this
file descriptor remains open, the namespace will remain alive, even if
all processes in the namespace terminate. The file descriptor can be
passed to setns(2).
In Linux 3.7 and earlier, these files were visible as hard links.
Since Linux 3.8, they appear as symbolic links. If two processes are
in the same namespace, then the device IDs and inode numbers of their
/proc/[pid]/ns/xxx symbolic links will be the same; an application can
check this using the stat.st_dev and stat.st_ino fields returned by
stat(2). The content of this symbolic link is a string containing the
namespace type and inode number as in the following example:
$ readlink /proc/$$/ns/uts
uts:[4026531838]
The symbolic links in this subdirectory are as follows:
/proc/[pid]/ns/cgroup (since Linux 4.6)
This file is a handle for the cgroup namespace of the process.
/proc/[pid]/ns/ipc (since Linux 3.0)
This file is a handle for the IPC namespace of the process.
/proc/[pid]/ns/mnt (since Linux 3.8)
This file is a handle for the mount namespace of the process.
/proc/[pid]/ns/net (since Linux 3.0)
This file is a handle for the network namespace of the process.
/proc/[pid]/ns/pid (since Linux 3.8)
This file is a handle for the PID namespace of the process.
This handle is permanent for the lifetime of the process (i.e.,
a process's PID namespace membership never changes).
/proc/[pid]/ns/pid_for_children (since Linux 4.12)
This file is a handle for the PID namespace of child processes
created by this process. This can change as a consequence of
calls to unshare(2) and setns(2) (see pid_namespaces(7)), so the
file may differ from /proc/[pid]/ns/pid. The symbolic link
gains a value only after the first child process is created in
the namespace. (Beforehand, readlink(2) of the symbolic link
will return an empty buffer.)
/proc/[pid]/ns/user (since Linux 3.8)
This file is a handle for the user namespace of the process.
/proc/[pid]/ns/uts (since Linux 3.0)
This file is a handle for the UTS namespace of the process.
Permission to dereference or read (readlink(2)) these symbolic links is
governed by a ptrace access mode PTRACE_MODE_READ_FSCREDS check; see
ptrace(2).
The /proc/sys/user directory
The files in the /proc/sys/user directory (which is present since Linux
4.9) expose limits on the number of namespaces of various types that
can be created. The files are as follows:
max_cgroup_namespaces
The value in this file defines a per-user limit on the number of
cgroup namespaces that may be created in the user namespace.
max_ipc_namespaces
The value in this file defines a per-user limit on the number of
ipc namespaces that may be created in the user namespace.
max_mnt_namespaces
The value in this file defines a per-user limit on the number of
mount namespaces that may be created in the user namespace.
max_net_namespaces
The value in this file defines a per-user limit on the number of
network namespaces that may be created in the user namespace.
max_pid_namespaces
The value in this file defines a per-user limit on the number of
pid namespaces that may be created in the user namespace.
max_user_namespaces
The value in this file defines a per-user limit on the number of
user namespaces that may be created in the user namespace.
max_uts_namespaces
The value in this file defines a per-user limit on the number of
uts namespaces that may be created in the user namespace.
Note the following details about these files:
* The values in these files are modifiable by privileged processes.
* The values exposed by these files are the limits for the user names‐
pace in which the opening process resides.
* The limits are per-user. Each user in the same user namespace can
create namespaces up to the defined limit.
* The limits apply to all users, including UID 0.
* These limits apply in addition to any other per-namespace limits
(such as those for PID and user namespaces) that may be enforced.
* Upon encountering these limits, clone(2) and unshare(2) fail with
the error ENOSPC.
* For the initial user namespace, the default value in each of these
files is half the limit on the number of threads that may be created
(/proc/sys/kernel/threads-max). In all descendant user namespaces,
the default value in each file is MAXINT.
* When a namespace is created, the object is also accounted against
ancestor namespaces. More precisely:
+ Each user namespace has a creator UID.
+ When a namespace is created, it is accounted against the creator
UIDs in each of the ancestor user namespaces, and the kernel
ensures that the corresponding namespace limit for the creator
UID in the ancestor namespace is not exceeded.
+ The aforementioned point ensures that creating a new user names‐
pace cannot be used as a means to escape the limits in force in
the current user namespace.
Cgroup namespaces (CLONE_NEWCGROUP)
See cgroup_namespaces(7).
IPC namespaces (CLONE_NEWIPC)
IPC namespaces isolate certain IPC resources, namely, System V IPC
objects (see sysvipc(7)) and (since Linux 2.6.30) POSIX message queues
(see mq_overview(7)). The common characteristic of these IPC mecha‐
nisms is that IPC objects are identified by mechanisms other than
filesystem pathnames.
Each IPC namespace has its own set of System V IPC identifiers and its
own POSIX message queue filesystem. Objects created in an IPC names‐
pace are visible to all other processes that are members of that names‐
pace, but are not visible to processes in other IPC namespaces.
The following /proc interfaces are distinct in each IPC namespace:
* The POSIX message queue interfaces in /proc/sys/fs/mqueue.
* The System V IPC interfaces in /proc/sys/kernel, namely: msgmax,
msgmnb, msgmni, sem, shmall, shmmax, shmmni, and shm_rmid_forced.
* The System V IPC interfaces in /proc/sysvipc.
When an IPC namespace is destroyed (i.e., when the last process that is
a member of the namespace terminates), all IPC objects in the namespace
are automatically destroyed.
Use of IPC namespaces requires a kernel that is configured with the
CONFIG_IPC_NS option.
Network namespaces (CLONE_NEWNET)
See network_namespaces(7).
Mount namespaces (CLONE_NEWNS)
See mount_namespaces(7).
PID namespaces (CLONE_NEWPID)
See pid_namespaces(7).
User namespaces (CLONE_NEWUSER)
See user_namespaces(7).
UTS namespaces (CLONE_NEWUTS)
UTS namespaces provide isolation of two system identifiers: the host‐
name and the NIS domain name. These identifiers are set using sethost‐
name(2) and setdomainname(2), and can be retrieved using uname(2),
gethostname(2), and getdomainname(2).
When a process creates a new UTS namespace using clone(2) or unshare(2)
with the CLONE_NEWUTS flag, the hostname and domain of the new UTS
namespace are copied from the corresponding values in the caller's UTS
namespace.
Use of UTS namespaces requires a kernel that is configured with the
CONFIG_UTS_NS option.
Namespace lifetime
Absent any other factors, a namespace is automatically torn down when
the last process in the namespace terminates or leaves the namespace.
However, there are a number of other factors that may pin a namespace
into existence even though it has no member processes. These factors
include the following:
* An open file descriptor or a bind mount exists for the corresponding
/proc/[pid]/ns/* file.
* The namespace is hierarchical (i.e., a PID or user namespace), and
has a child namespace.
* It is a user namespace that owns one or more nonuser namespaces.
* It is a PID namespace, and there is a process that refers to the
namespace via a /proc/[pid]/ns/pid_for_children symbolic link.
* It is an IPC namespace, and a corresponding mount of an mqueue
filesystem (see mq_overview(7)) refers to this namespace.
* It is a PID namespace, and a corresponding mount of a proc(5)
filesystem refers to this namespace.
EXAMPLE
See clone(2) and user_namespaces(7).
SEE ALSO
nsenter(1), readlink(1), unshare(1), clone(2), ioctl_ns(2), setns(2),
unshare(2), proc(5), capabilities(7), cgroup_namespaces(7), cgroups(7),
credentials(7), network_namespaces(7), pid_namespaces(7), user_names‐
paces(7), lsns(8), pam_namespace(8), switch_root(8)
COLOPHON
This page is part of release 5.02 of the Linux man-pages project. A
description of the project, information about reporting bugs, and the
latest version of this page, can be found at
https://www.kernel.org/doc/man-pages/.
Linux 2019-08-02 NAMESPACES(7)